In 711AD medieval Spain was invaded by the armies of Islam. These invaders would rule the region for the next several hundred years, build lasting monuments and leaving an unmistakable influence on the culture of Europe in the area of science, medicine, literature and music for centuries to come. Among these invaders were Arabs, Berbers (in their variable ancestries) and black Africans. Collectively they would be Moors by Europeans. And the Black-a-Moors, as black Africans involved in the society were called, would become well remembered.

Though originally from the Latin Mauri meaning "swarthy or black", the term Moor became applied to all Muslims in general by several Europeans. Though argued upon quite often how variable that application was, what is mutually agreed upon is that Moor regardless of its origins came to represent Muslim. And it was used interchangeably with "arabe" or "musulman" despite one's racial or ethnic identity. Thus the historiography shows that the term Moor has varied meanings that have changed over time. The only constant has been its association with the blacks of the Latin description. Exhaustive studies have been made to sort out these blacks, often seen amid depictions of Arabic and lighter Berbers.

Beyond finding and identifying these blacks has been the question as to their roles and status in medieval Europe. The roles most assigned to blacks in Muslim Spain by writers are that of soldier and slave. Most modern writers associate the one word agreed upon to mean black, Sudanese, with the word slave.

Michael Brett in "The Moors" writes that blacks were imported over the years as slaves from the western and central Sudan, and employed as servants and soldiers as well as concubines". Like Brett, most writers simultaneously refer to these black slaves as soldiers as well.

There are a few writers however who offer a more complex description of the status of these slave soldiers. Michael O'Callaghan in his work, "A History of Medieval Spain" remarks that slavery within the Muslim world afforded movement along the social ladder regardless of one's status. O'Callaghan gives us a little more insight, remarking that the Umayyad dynasty ruler Al-Hakam "recruited a large bodyguard of Negroes".

O'Callaghan also mentions accounts of "mounted Negro archers wearing white capes". He states that with Muslim Spain's constant warfare with itself or the Christians, there was a constant need for troops. He states the following, "A corps of professional soldiers paid regular wages proved to be a more valuable instrument of war. Al-Hakam I was the first to recruit large numbers of mercenaries, including Berbers and Sudanese Negroes. Although many of the guardsmen were slaves and freedmen, they came to enjoy an exceptional political and military importance".

It is of note that O'Callaghan describes the slave army as "mercenaries" as slave may be too simple a description, or perhaps even a misleading one. Richard Fletcher in his work "Moorish Spain" also points to the confusing label of the term "slave" when referring to the Muslim military. He states, "slave is perhaps a misleading term, since by no means all such soldiers were unfree. Mercenary or simply 'professional' might be more appropriate". O'Callaghan cites an Arab jurist of Almoravid Seville who speaks of "Negro soldiers who wore the Almoravid veil".

Miriam DeCosta looks to the medieval Spanish manuscript, the "Cantigas", to explain the status of black soldiers in Muslim Spain. He points to pictures of the Almoravid army in the "Cantigas" stating, "Black Moors are not always presented as servants or captives; indeed, according to medieval illuminators, they seem to have held prominent positions in Moorish society, particularly the military. The Almoravid army was commonly divided by rank into foot soldiers or advance guard, bowsmen, lancers on horseback and generals".

Art historian James Brunson and historian Runoko Rashidi use Viking Sagas to point out the presence of black Saracens in Muslim naval fleets. They quote from a translation of the thirteenth century Icelandic Orkneyinga that recounts a battle on the Mediterranean sea between Vikings and black Saracens which states, "Once both parties were aboard there was fierce fighting' the people on the drumond being Saracens, whom we call infidels of Mohommad, among them a good many black men, who put up a strong resistance".

As the Viking saga continues, "Erling, honored aimer of spears, eagerly advanced towards the vessel in victory, with banners of blood; the black warriors, brave lads, we captured or killed, crimsoning our blade. Busy with this drumond business our blades we bloodied on the blacks"

Eleventh century Spanish depiction of the reputed heads of four slain Moorish princes killed in battle with Aragonese forces. There have been literal and symbolic interpretations of the artwork.

To highlight the social mobility of these soldiers DeCosta points to Yusuf ibn Tashfin, the leader of the Almoravid forces that recapture Spain in the 11th Century. DeCosta remarks that Yusuf is said to be a Sanhaja Berber "from the Sudan near Ghana". He also makes mention of the Arab chronicler Al-Fasi who describes Yusuf as a "brown man with wooly hair". DeCosta contends that this description places Yusuf as a Berber of at the least partial black-African heritage.

H.T. Norris in his work, "The Berbers in Arabic Literature", recounts that among Yusuf's troops was personal retinue of 4,000 black soldiers carrying hippopotamus skin shields, peculiar bows, Yazani spears, Zabian javelins, and moving to constant sound of drumming. Norris states, "The bizarre aspect of the African army was a valuable psychological weapon".

Brunson and Rashidi also write of black women warriors among the Almoravids. They cite the medieval epic "Romance of the Cid" that also speaks of black Berber Almoravid women. "This group of women consisted of three hundred Almoravid Amazons led by a 'Black Moorish woman' named Nugaymath Turquia".

Rashidi and Brunons cite Norris who states further of this black Berber, "She appears in the Primera Cronica General of Alfonso X (El Sabio), king of Castille and Leon (1252-84). The Primera was completed about 1289 under his successor Sancho IV. The events are associated with the Almoravid siege of Valencia after the death of the Cid. Nugaymath Turquia is the leader of a band of three hundred Amazons. They are negresses, they have their heads shaven, leaving only a topknot, they are on a pilgrimage and they are armed with Turkish bows".

Norris goes further to quote from the actual text stating, "King Bucar ordered that black Moorish woman to encamp nears the town with all her company That Moorish woman was so shrewd a master archer with the Turkish bow that it was a wonder to behold, and for that reason (the History) says the Moors called in her in Arabic nugaymath turquia, which means 'star of the archers of Turkey'".

Beyond the roles of soldier and slave, there is little written on blacks in Muslim Spain. Very few writers associate any blacks with members of the nobility. Hugh Kennedy in "Muslim Spain and Portugal" cites a possible reference to a black noble. Kennedy describes Al-Hakam, who ruled the Umayyad Amirate, as "tall, thin, haughty and strikingly dark in complexion". This is Kennedy's only reference to Al-Hakam' appearance, noting that he is of different appearance than his Arab father. But Kennedy never explains the reason for this.

DeCosta refers to the Cantigas for evidence of black nobility in Muslim Spain. He states "blacks also figured among the Moorish aristocracy". He points to pictures within the Cantigas that depict black nobles. One of these is a picture depicting a rich sultan dispensing gifts among other members of the nobility. One of those depicted is a black figure.

Despite his seemingly larger than life accomplishments, it is generally accepted that Imhotep was an actual historical persona. His numerous deeds, actual or attributed, were enough to ensure that his name would be remembered thousands of years after his death.

Brunson and Rashidi also look to the Cantigas for evidence of Black nobility in Muslim Spain. They highlight a picture depicting two black "Moorish" noblemen playing chess. Both black and white servants wait upon them.

For More Information See:

Pictures of Black Noble, Moorish men: http://www.pbm.com/~lindahl/cantigas/images/libro_2.gif

Sertima, Ivan Van. ed. Golden Age of the Moors

Bovill, E.W. Golden Trade of the Moors

Brett, Micheal. The Moors

Brunson, James and Runoko Rashidi. "The Moors in Antiquity" In Golden Age of the Moor, ed. Ivan Van Sertima

Chanlder, Wayne. "The Moor: Light of Europe's Dark Age" In Golden Ageof the Moor, ed. Ivan Van Sertima

Davidson, Basil. Africa in History

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"The Appeal of the Ethiopian", In The Image of the Black in Western Art, Vol. 2, Pt. 2, trans. W.G. Ryan

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"The African Diaspora and the Civilization of Islam." In African Diaspora, eds. Martin L. Kilson and Robert I. Rotberg

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